一、简单句和并列句（简单句和并列句是复合句的基础。）
1. 简单句的五种形式：     （1）主语+谓语(不及物动词）；     （2）主语+谓语（及物动词）+宾语；     （3）主语+谓语+宾语+补语；     （4）主语+谓语+间接宾语+直接宾语；     （5）主语+系动词+表语。  两类系动词：①be动词；②一些实义动词用作系动词：feel, taste, smell等；
2. 并列句：一个句子当中包含两个或更多互不相依存的主谓结构，中间用一些连接词连接起来的句子。并列句不能只用逗号隔开，而要用连接词连接。连接词：（1）并列关系句型：连接词有and, as well as, either…or…，neither…nor…,not only…but also… 1.Last year I met Kate and we became friends.2.Either my uncle can do it, or my aunt can do it.
（2）转折概念并列句型：转折词有but：It has no mouth, but it can talk.（3）对比关系的并列句型：He liked sports, while I would rather collect stamps.举例：1.Cerling‘s team collected tap water samples from 600 cities and constructed a mop（最终结果） of the regional（地区的） differences.（简单句）     2.Most hydrogen（氢） and oxygen（氧） atoms（原子） in water are stable, but traces（痕迹） of both elements are also present（呈现） as heavier isotopes（同位素）. （并列句）
二、句子成分
句子六大成分：主谓宾、定状表。      主语、宾语和表语：通常由代词或者名词构成，      定语：修饰名词；      状语：修饰形容词或者动词；      表语：接在系动词后面；
（一）.代词：人称代词、物主代词、反身代词、指示代词、不定代词。   
1人称代词：第一、二、三人称，主格、宾格、所有格；I, you ,he, she, it,  me, you, him, her, it, my, your, his, her, its.       
2 物主代词①形容词性物主代词：my, your, his, her, our, their，后面加名词；May I borrow your pen?②名词性物主代词：mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs，后面不能加名词。Mine is missing。
3反身代词：通过反身代词指代主语，使动作发出者把动作在形式上反射到发出者本人。强调人称问题。1.I myself took Mary to the airport. 2.I cooked it myself.      
4. 指示代词：this, that, these, those   
5. 不定代词：some，someone，something，any，anyone，anything，no，no one，nothing，all，both，neither，either，each，every，everybody，everyone，everything.一些比较重要的不定代词之间的区别：（1）all, each, every：① all和every可以指代三个或三个以上的人或物；all可以表示所有东西的总和，是一个不可分割的整体； each只能表示两个或两个以上的人，侧重个体；② all和every侧重整体，each侧重个体；1.Every staff of the university contributed to the fund.2.Two girls came, and I gave an apple to each.   
（2）everyone，every one：everyone等同于everybody，all people ；Everyone thinks they have the right to be here；every one既可以指人，也可以指物，强调一个个体，通常用every one of ；1.Every one of us has faults and shortcomings.2.Every one of the films we have shown this year has been a success.
（3）no one，none：no one 只能指人，none既可以指人，也可以指物，none后面还可以接of；1.No one failed the examination.2.None of the students failed the examination. 
6. it 的用法  
（1）指代人，通常用于口语中；  
（2）书面语：     
① it 用来指代时间、距离、温度、天气等：It's three years since I saw him.     
② it 用来前指或者后指：I've lost my book. Where is it？There is no doubt about it that he was a fine teacher.     
③ it 做形式主语：Is it possible to learn typewriting very quickly？     
④ it 做形式宾语，通常放在谓语动词和宾语补足语（形容词）之间，真正的宾语放在宾补之后，常见动词有：feel, consider, find, believe, make, take, imagine, think, suppose, regard。1.She thinks it no use telling me.2.He has made it clear that he wouldn't agree to the plan.
⑤ it 用于强调句，构成句型It's…that/who…，如何区分强调句中的it和形式主语中的it？It's clear that they have won.如果It's和that去掉后，剩下的部分依然能构成完整的句子，就是强调句；否则，即为形式主语。
（二）名词
1. 可数名词：有单复数之分，若名词为单数，通常前面要加冠词a/an、the进行限定；若名词为复数，可以加上the，或者直接用复数名词，或者加上数词来进行限定；名词的复数形式可以直接加s/es，以y 结尾的，变y 为i ，再加es,还有一些特殊形式的；有些单数名词的形式，是集合名词，可以用作复数，如police，cattle，people，mankind等；1.Several hundreds police were on duty at the demonstration（示威游行） yesterday. 2.Cattle are allowed to graze（放牧） on the village common.（公有地）
2. 不可数名词：通常是物质名词或者抽象名词，其前可以不加任何东西，若有特指，可以加the.前面可以加上单位词，常见单位词：    ①a piece of +advice/bread/cloth/fortune/information/music/muse    ②a bit of、an item of（一则）、an article of（一件（衣服））
3. 名词在翻译中遇到的问题：   
（1）不可数名词和可数名词间的转换形式：water＆waters（水域、海洋），sand＆sands（沙滩），wood＆woods（树林），goods（商品），ash和ashes（废墟）   
（2）名词表示特指时，可以加冠词       ①不定冠词：a/an，通常表示一，但是不强调数目；Germany is a European country.       ②定冠词：表示特定或特指：Is this the book that you are looking for?定冠词还可以使用于一些比较独特的语言现象：如指代地球或宇宙这种独一无二的事物。It's from that story we have the idea that mankind is responsible or has dominion over the animals and the earth.（从这个故事中，我们感到,人类是重要的，人类统领着,其他动物和整个地球。）
the+名词：表示全部或者整体。Do you know who invented the computer？；用于乐器或专有名词前，如play the piano、the Thames
注意：零冠词：不可数名词不特指时，前面不加任何冠词：节日，时间， 季节，三餐，球类，学科，职位，头衔前一般不加冠词。What do you usually have for lunch?
（三）数词：分为基数词（1,2,3...）和序数词(first,second,third…)
1.表示大约的词汇：about，approximately，around，roughly，some，more or less, or so;. 1.About 200 people were killed in the crash. 2.The town is 5 Miles or so from here.
（1）.When they detect the beginnings of a wave of unfolding local order, they simulate it faster than real life and then bet on where they think the wave will approximately end当他们探测到正在展开的局部秩序的波动时，就会以比真实生活更快的速度进行模拟，然后把注下在他们认为这一波动将停留的最近似的端点。
（2）approximately semicontinuous近似半连续的，Approximately firm大致坚稳，approximately equivalent近似等价，approximately equals约等于
（3）roughly equivalent大约相当于roughly explain笼统解释roughly speaking大约说来roughly summarily概略地count roughly约计，It would cover roughly 80% of the economy毕竟减排将涉及到大约80%的经济。One is that the world economy returns roughly to its pre-crisis rate of growth, without regaining the ground lost第一种可能性是，世界经济大体回到危机前的增长速度，但还未夺回失去的阵地。But the income gaps of rich countries have narrowed, so living standards in the West today are roughly the same between town and country但是富裕国家的收入差距已然有所缩小，因此在今日的西方国家，城市和农村生活水平差距并不明显。That is roughly equivalent to China's consumption last year这差不多相当于中国去年一年的消耗量。This path roughly tracks the transition of a country from an agricultural to an industrial base.这条道路大体遵循着一个国家从农业基地过渡到工业基地的变化轨迹。The price of orange juice has risen by a quarter over the past year, eggs by a fifth and milk by roughly 5%在过去这一年中，橘子汁价格上涨四分之一，鸡蛋价格上涨五分之一，牛奶价格也差不多有5%的增幅。For each out-of-date power plant it shut down in a two-year cleanup campaign, it added the capacity of roughly two more对于在为期两年的清理过程中关闭的每家过时的发电厂，它又新产生了大约两倍于此的发电能力。
House prices look overvalued on The Economist's price-to-rents ratio, which stands roughly 20% above its long-run average (see chart). 从经济学人的租售比表格来看，租售比比其长期平均数据高出20%，房价被高估了（见表格）。Roughly a century ago scholars rejected this explanation when archaeologists digging at the site could find no chasm and detect no gases大约在一世纪之前，考古学家在此挖掘，却没有找到裂沟，也侦测不到气体，因此学者便否定了这个解释。Since Monday, when the market fell to its lowest point in 12 years, indexes have soared roughly 10 percent, their best run since November自周一来，虽然股市跌至12年来的最低点，但指数却上涨了10%左右，这是自十一月来的最好表现，Roughly half of its articles—generally financial news and insiderish business reports—sit behind a pay wall, although they are free if accessed via Google News该刊文章大约有一半——基本上是财经新闻及内部商业报道——需付费阅读，即使这些文章通过谷歌新闻网可以免费读到As a matter of fact, this saying is roughly accurate, at least in the spring and fall, but the reason it works is more complicated than we might initially think事实上，这种说法至少在春天和秋天里是比较正确的，但是其中的道理也许比我们当初想的要复杂的多He reckons that America will account for just 27% of global consumption this year against emerging markets' 34%, roughly the reverse of their shares eight years ago他认为美国今年仅会在全球消费中占到27%的比重，而新兴市场会占34%，这与八年前的情形刚好相反Poorer parents, meanwhile, maybe tempted to borrow more than they ever expect to repay; the default rate on government-blacked loans is roughly 22% and bound to rise同时，较为贫困的家长，可能诱惑去借些大多自己根本没打算还的钱；在政府的利率上，违约的大约是22%并且一定会上升Meanwhile, students have blocked roughly 40 universities nationwide to express their discontent about government plans to grant higher education institutes greater autonomy同时，成千上万的学生封锁了全国约40所大学，表达了他们对政府给高校更多自主权的不满。The idea is practical since it means amending banks' debt structures, not reinventing them, although banks would need roughly to double the amount of this debt that they hold尽管银行为此不得将持有的债务总额翻一番，但是这样做意味着修改而不是重新创造银行的债务结构，所以这种想法是符合实际的Since roughly half their expenses are tied to borrowing costs, which they cannot control, that translates into an 8-10% fall in non-interest operating costs, of which salaries are a big part由于这些银行约一半的费用都和不受他们控制的借贷成本有关，这些借贷成本转变为员工薪水占很大比例的非利息经营成本后下降了8-10%，In effect, that would require them to improve fuel economy roughly twice as fast as the federal government's bill, since the only straightforward way to reduce emissions is to increase efficiency事实上，这就要求汽车厂商们以两倍于联邦政府法案规定的速度来改善其燃料的节约方式，因为要想减少排放，唯一直接的方法就是提高效能

2. 表示多于的词汇：above，more than, over3. 表示少于，不到的词汇：almost，below，less than, under. It's 2:57, and it's almost 3 o'clock4. 一些可以直接表示数字的单词： dozen、score、decade、hundred、thousand、million.这些词前面出现基数词，表示确切的数时，不能加复数；若不能表明确切数字，只是说大约有多少的时候，以上这些词不可以加确切的基数词，但是可以将其变为复数，后加of；There are millions of kinds of matter in the world.
（1）dozens of 几十；许多by the dozen 成打地；按打计算half a dozen adj. 半打，六个a dozen eggs 一打鸡蛋daily dozen 每日健身操；例行公事Perhaps a dozen companies around the world can make something similar也许世界上好多公司都能造得出类似的东西Carried a dozen workers on the payroll工资名单上包括十二个工人The Internet is a bunch of interconnected networks, so your data probably moves along a dozen different networks between here and there因特网是一组相互连接的网络，所以你的数据可能会沿着许多不同的网络在传送Only a dozen other countries, including China and Russia, have similar restrictions, and there is no evidence that these bans halt the spread of AIDS
仅有十几个其他国家，包括中国和俄罗斯，也有类似的限制，但也没有证据表明这些限制会阻止艾滋病的蔓延Chinese and South African companies signed more than a dozen agreements yesterday involving investments in railways, power transmission, construction, mining, insurance, telecoms and nuclear power中国和南非两国企业昨日签署了十多项协议，涉及对铁路、输电、建筑、采矿、保险、电信以及核电等行业的投资
（2）Does he often score for our school football team? 他经常为我们学校的足球队得分吗？Too high of a score? 分数打得太高了？When did the London team score the second goal? 伦敦队是什么时候攻进第二球的？Two candidates and a score of party workers were killed by rival party thugs两名候选人和十来位党务工作者被敌对党派暴徒杀害And failure, for whatever reason, is common: a score of budget airlines have either collapsed or lost their independence in the past five years而且不管出自什么原因，失败总是常有的：在过去的五年内，已有二十家廉价航空公司倒闭或者被兼并When students receive less than a perfect test score she would point out what they had mastered and declare firmly they could learn what they had missed当学生的考试成绩不理想时，她就会指出他们掌握了哪些，并坚定地断言他们能学全遗漏的知识But it could just as well be that those who score highly on self-esteem scales by claiming to be wonderful people all around also boast of being physically attractive这种推论看来虽然合理，但同样有可能的是，宣称自己很不错，而在自尊量表上给高分的人，可能也会自吹自擂是外貌吸引人的人But by including it in his budget plans, he sends a more tangible signal of his determination to take on global warming than he could with a score of uplifting speeches但把这个方案写入计划，至少可以说明奥巴马给了一个更明确的信号——他决心治理全球变暖问题，而不仅仅停留在一堆振奋人心的演说词上The analysis is then broken into steps that progressively take into account larger and larger grammatical chunks, updating the sentiment score of each entity as it goes分析过程于是被分成几个步骤，由单个词汇逐渐累加成越来越大的语法块，随着分析的进行不断更新每个模块的情感分值The WEF's ranking is one of the more significant measurements of countries' economic potential since it aggregates an extensive number of different indicators to arrive at its overall score世界经济论坛的排行榜，是衡量各国经济潜力的较重要指标之一，因为它在计算总分时综合了大量不同的指标Buying a diamond ring soon after buying petrol results in an even higher risk score: thieves often test a card's validity with a small purchase before buying something much bigger在购买汽油之后立刻购买钻石将导致风险分值增高，因为窃贼在购买大件物品之前，通常用小笔买卖来测试信用卡是否可用People with dyscalculia might also have a poor sense of direction. They might have difficulty keeping score during games, and limited ability to plan moves during games like chess计算障碍者有可能方向感也很差。他们或许难于记清游戏中的分数，并且对于诸如围棋一类的游戏，其行棋能力有限But they would need 60 votes to overcome a filibuster, and an election year gives the Republicans an extra incentive to use the hearings to score political points不过，民主党将需要60票才能击败阻扰，而且选举年对共和党是一个额外的激励——利用听证捞取政治本钱Just as a master can recall all the moves in a game he has played, so can an accomplished musician often reconstruct the score to a sonata heard just once就像大师记得住比赛中下过的每步棋一样，训练有素的音乐家也经常可以记住只听过一次的奏鸣曲乐谱
（四）形容词和副词
1. 定语:用来修饰名词，通常是形容词；若是单个形容词，一般放在修饰名词前；若为词组，一般放在修饰名词之后；形容词词组的两种情况：   （1）成对的形容词:She has many pencils, blue and red.   （2）形容词短语：I think he is a man suitable for the job.形容词还可以做表语，放在be动词之后；英语中有一些词语作表语和作定语时，含义会有所不同：  
（1）certain：作定语时，表示特定的: A certain(某一) Mr. Wang just came here to look for you;作表语时，表示当然的，一定，相当于be sure；No matter what the reason, one thing is for certain(不管是出于什么原因，有一件事是肯定的。)
（2）complete：作定语时，表示完全的;作表语时，表示完成的或完美的；A complete scan of the source code by the compiler or assembler由编译程序或汇编程序对源程序代码的一次完整的扫描Experts say students with dyscalculia need extra time to complete their work专家说拥有计算障碍的学生需要额外的时间完成作业Only time will tell if cryonics is true science or a complete waste of money唯有时间才能确定人体冷冻是真正的科学还是纯粹浪费钱Students complete the survey before starting the programme and after graduating学员在课程开始前和毕业后两次完成问卷调查Will the parent company really allow the fund managers complete investment freedom母公司真的会允许基金管理者实现完全的投资自由吗? It can supply complete testing evidence in the way of printing records, simply, quickly, conveniently and reliably能够简单快捷、方便可靠地以打印记录的方式提供完整性测试证据It just gives you feedback to help you evaluate your fitness to complete tasks that require lots of effort and concentration它只会给你回馈的结果来评估你完成那些需要许多努力和注意力任务的合适程度To save all of the files needed to display this page, including graphics, frames, and style sheets, click Web Page, complete要保存显示该网页时所需的全部文件，包括图像、框架和样式表，请单击“网页，全部” We all know people who have never learned to communicate their feelings, and, in all probability, they are not going to do a complete turnabout now我们都认识一些从来没有学会与他人交流感受的人，而且很可能他们到现在都不准备作出彻底的转变Even if they are lucky enough to have a complete fossil, they may be unable to say much about how the animal behaved if it looks unlike anything they have seen before即使他们十分幸运的弄到一个完整的化石，如果它和以前他们所有见过的东西都不像，他们也没法对这个动物的行为了解更多Don't push for an interview on the spot, but rather explain that you want to let them know of your interest, drop off your resume, and complete an application while you're there if possible这个时候不要急着想得到面试，而是解释为你只是想让他们知道你对他们招聘的职位有兴趣，放下你的简历，然后有可能的话填完一份申请表就离开吧This theory acknowledges that people do not require complete privacy该理论认为人们不需要完全的隐私In this life there is no complete justice, nowhere is there full justice在这个世界上没有完全的正义，没有哪里是完美的正义Complete cooperation is vital to success彻底的合作是成功的重要条件There is no revenge so complete as forgiveness没有比宽恕更彻底的复仇方式了
（3）ill：作定语时，表示坏的；作表语时，表示有病的；Even now, however, it took a severe run of ill luck to decide him to appeal to her然而，即使是现在，也是因为运气太坏，一直都讨不到钱，他才决定向她求助的It is either making her ill or making her skive, neither of which are good无论她因此患病，还是因此受到折磨，这两种情况都不太好   
（4）late: 作定语时，表示已故的；作表语时，表示晚的、迟到的；They planned to put up a statue of the late President他们计划给已故的总统竖一尊雕像Tell me about his late illness告诉我他最近的病况It's never too late to learn永远没有太迟的事，只有你不想做的事The latest revival in a popularized form is that of the New Age movement in the late sixties最近的影响较广的复兴是六十年代后期的新时代运动Only to know that regretting myself when it was too late. It is no paint in the world can come near to this我们总是容易忽略身边最近的人，频向远方去追求，殊不知最爱的人往往就近在眼前，从未离开过我们   
（5）ready：作定语时，表示现成的；作表语时，表示准备好的、愿意做……；Do you like ready-made clothing or tailor-made clothing? 你喜欢现成的衣服还是定做的衣服? This account provides you with a ready source of income这个户头为你提供了一个现成的收入来源Get paperwork ready in advance提前准备好相关文件Be ready to explain your actions准备好为你的行为作出解释   
（6）present：作定语时，表示目前的，相当于current；作表语时，表示出席，参加；This person is your present age这个人是你现在的年龄What present can I give you for singing to me? 我能给你什么样的礼物来酬谢你为我歌唱吗? At present our essential task is raised us the efficiency目前我们主要的任务是提高我们的效率Hang on! In the USA, when someone gives you a present, you must open it immediately等等！在美国，当别人送给你礼物的时候，你一定要马上就打开它Who controls the past controls the future; who controls the present controls the past掌握过去带人就能掌握未来，控制现在带人就能控制过去Each student has to understand that going to school, he gets a wonderful opportunity to live better in the future and also in the present每个学生必须明白来学校上课，他们就获得了一个难得的机会使他们将来甚至现在的生活过得更好As we prepare to attend, or host, gatherings of family and friends to greet the new year, fresh flowers are the perfect present to give to others and to ourselves当我们准备参加或主持家庭聚会时，或和朋友们迎接新年的到来时，鲜花对于他人还是我们自己都是一种超级棒的礼物
注意：the+形容词：表示一类人；the old, the poor, the blind, the rich, the young, the wounded
2. 状语：通常由副词构成，副词可以修饰动词，形容词，乃至整个句子；副词通常是褒义的，有部分是有否定含义的，常见否定含义副词有seldom，hardly，rarely，scarcely；其它副词通常是表示肯定的概念；1.The promised cuts in public spending have scarcely begun to bite削减公共开支的承诺还没有开始发挥效力。2. Rarely does the narrator comment on or explain a character's actions or thoughts or motives. There's only the barest（裸露的） minimum of dialogue. 作者极少评价或解释一个人物的行为,或思想或动机，文章中只有不能再直白的对话。
3. 形容词和副词的比较级：
（1）一些没有比较级的形容词和副词：      ①单词本身的含义是表示比……年长、比……优秀、比……优等时，没有比较级概念；如supreme(最高的；至高的；最重要的)，inferior(次品, 下等的)，junior(下级的)，senior（高级的），prior（优先的），后面搭配的介词一般是to，而不用than.
1.Sovereign is to have supreme command over life and death, war and peace, what is to be taught and heard.
君主对人的生死，和平或是战争,均拥有至高无上的权力，其他人等只有服从命令。
2. The quote goes on: "As a race, the African is inferior to the white man. 他说道,"从人种这方面说,黑人比白人低劣
3.Junior Achievement is an organization that teaches young people about finance and business初级的成果是一个帮助年轻人关于财政和生意的组织。
4. He had now become the fourth most senior member in the Senate。他在当时成为了参议院内第四位最资深的议员。5. The downside to such a policy is that it reinforces the structure of the economy that prevailed prior to the recession而这样的政策也有负面发展的可能性，那就是它进一步强化了经济衰退之前的经济结构。
②有些单词本身的含义即是最，独一无二，没有比较级概念；如absolute，entire，excellent，favorite，final.1The absolute fake is so obvious that it is still invisible to us.. 这种完全的仿造是如此明显，以至于我们仍然察觉不到。2. He developed an entire vocabulary, a rhetoric of righteous disobedience, of resistance, of protest and revolution.他创造出了一整套词汇，一套用来表述,正义的不服从，反抗，示威，以及革命的词汇。
（2）同级比较和异级比较：      ①同级比较：as…as…/…times  as…：1.More than ten times as many studied business or engineering. 学商学和工程学的留学生人数是这一人数的十倍之多。2.But other factors contribute as well但是其他因素也起作用。3. Why should we have happiness as our highest end, as our chief concern, as that which determines the motion of our life? 为什么把快乐作为最终目标，作为主要担心，为什么由它来决定生命活动？4. You can talk about it as much as you like, but as long as you're going to go home and still drive your Hummer and have sixteen hot showers a day, we're still going to have high carbon emissions.你可以在减排问题上一直高谈阔论,但当你回家时,你仍然会开着你的悍马,每天洗十六次热水澡,我们依然在大量排碳
②异级比较：（倍数或修饰词，表示多或少）+比较级+than.常见的修饰比较级的词有：much、still，even，by far，a bit，a little, a good deal或者倍数；1.The photography of Mars taken by satellite are much clearer than those taken from earth.2.And we'll talk a little bit more about him: not today, but in the second lecture and in section. 我们会多对他进行讨论：,不是今天，是这个部分的第二次课。3. America will remain the biggest economy by far美国仍将会是全球最大的经济体。4. But notice, even if there is incredible constraints on grammars, still--we could still produce an infinite number of sentences.但是请注意,即使语法有着难以置信的不足,我们却依然可以创造出无限数量的句子 5. This unusual offset arises because a good deal of energy is consumed to extract and process fossil fuels, and more is wasted in burning them and controlling their emissions这个不增反减的现象主要是因为有许多能量是用于开采及处理化石燃料，而且燃烧和控制废气排放所浪费的能量更多。7. It is not enough to avoid being clinically obese, or even just a bit overweight. 仅仅避免临床的肥胖症是不够的，甚至是一点点地超重也不行。
③比较级特殊用法词汇：more…than…：He is more clever than honest; the+比较级：越来越……：The harder you work, the more you will learn.